Flight or Fight Response

escape or Fight Specific Purpose Inform people close the Fight or Flight response and the better understand the steering the torso responds to certain stress. I. Introduction Driving your p bents home one dark you begin to lose control of the simple machine and crash. Youre able to escape the car unharmed, but notice one of your parents are stuck inside with the door crowd and the car on fire. Your heart rate begins to rise and you detect this flock of energy hunt down through your body. You react and rip the door bump off the car and save your parent. This whitethorn sound like a yarn off a movie, but could and has actually happened in reality for several(prenominal) people.The surge of energy that allows our bodies to do extraordinary and unreal things is called adrenaline. This adrenaline comes from the bodys response, which is called the Fight or Flight response. To twenty-four hours Im going to inform you about the chemic adrenaline, what the push or outflow resp onse is, and how it is both good and bad for us. A. Attention Getter Im going to use a narrative introduction, which involves loved ones in distress. B. relevancy to Audience Everyone will want to write out how the fight or charge can be activated and also everyone experiences stress throughout their lives. C.Thesis What is the chemical adrenaline and the fight or flight response and also what are the pros and cons. D. Credibility I experience adrenaline in sports every day and declare done many research papers on it in High School. E. Preview Main orientates The main(prenominal) points include what adrenaline is, what the fight or flight response is and what the pros and cons are. F. Transition to First Main Point So whats adrenaline? Most of you mightinessiness already whap about it and may have experienced it in your life. II. First main point. The chemical adrenaline. A. Adrenaline is a chemical reaction that is produced by deuce adrenal glands, located by kidney. Harri son) 1. The glands produce the chemical and pump into the blood stream when the body is exposed to a potential threat. (Harrison) 2. Since the adrenaline must go through the whole body, it may take a couple seconds to richly tonus the effect of the adrenaline induct. a. It raises the heart rate and blood pressure. b. Changes the flow of the blood promptly to the muscles. (This makes you faster and stronger. ) B. Some people have distinguishable effects to it than others as well. 1. A person might feel energized, have a weak stomach, and or shaky and conf utilize during the rush. ( Harrison) 2.Some people might purge feel like they are in slow action or have tunnel vision. a. Sometimes may not feel pain at all. b. Not all these experiences may occur during the rush but some will. Transition to Second Main Point whole of these effects are helping prepare the body to flee or fight. This is the fight or flight response. III. Second main point. Fight or Flight response. A. The f ight or flight response is the bodys self-defense mechanism, that prepares the body to flee or fight from a wild or harmful situation. (Babu) 1. When our bodies experience an overwhelming amount of stress that may seem harmful the reaction is triggered. . The action is able to be triggered because of the hypothalamus. Which is an field of battle of the brain the starts a sequence of cell firing and chemical release that prepares our body. (Babu) a. People may be able to lift cars during the response or run at world record speeds. b. The chemical that is released is adrenaline. Transition to troika Main Point Now that you know what and how the response works, you need to know what the pros and cons are of the response. IV. Third main point. Pros and Cons. A. The pros of the response. 1. When the response is triggered it changes the flow of blood directly to our muscles and limbs more.Allowing us to be stronger and faster. 2. Also are pupils dilated and our aware(p)ness increases , allowing us to skip the environment. (Babu) a. All these signs allow the body to be put in the high hat physical and mental shape. B. Cons of the response. 1. As the response makes us more aware of things around us, some may become paranoid and hurt frank people. 2. It can also change the way we feel pain. Our body might allow us to lift a car, but afterwards we may be feeling the pain of lifting the car. Some muscles might tear without us knowing. (Babu) C. Optional)So while the response might be good, it can also be very devastating. Transition to Conclusion Now knowing what adrenaline is, how it is used in the flight or fight response and the pros and cons of response, you can be more aware of your bodys reactions to harmful stress. V. Conclusion. A. Is included in the transition. B. So the next time you feel harmed or threatened, you will feel the adrenaline rush and activate your bodies fight flight response. And who knows may even pick up a car. Note Must meet collegial s tandards of grammar, full Sentences throughout, double spaced, one inch margins, 12 inch generation New R

A Visual Interpretation of Lautrec’s “At the Moulin Rogue”

The impression At the Moulin Rouge by Lautrec agrees me a trace of glitz and exertion as I look at it. It shows the diverse kinds of activities through in the Moulin Rogue however, it slacken off awayms to lack the glamour and fanciness of a typical shadow club.Even the faces of the wo manpower, who I assume atomic number 18 hospitality girls, as is normal in a nightclub, lack luster, instead they are painted using piquet colour in the blue hints on the face of the woman on the in effect(p) even leads me to think that the woman is sickly.Noticeable also are the expressions in the faces of the people. As opposed to the excitement that would be expected in the faces of people who go our p finesseying in the evening, the faces in the painting seem to show a real level of dissatisfaction, misery, or boredom. Even the smile of the woman on the near side seems to be compel.The dominance of earth colors and faded hues in the painting give the beauty a touch modality of tir edness and gloom. The colors seem to make the painting drab instead of what it is supposed to be as a painting of a club where people universal in the evenings for drinks. These are not the kinds of colors that one would normally see in a night club even so, if it is set during an betimes period where people would most likely be more scented wattle as compared to party-goers of today.There is also a lack of light in the painting despite the consideration that this is a night club and it opens in the evenings, it is crazy that the light sources in the painting seem to be diff apply or faded. The colors and the lighting in the painting give me an overall feeling of monotony and blandness, like when you taste a piece of cake and it is not as sweet as expected despite the visual fashion of the cake.If I was to take board of composition in the painting, the elements are sort of scattered, perhaps to give the viewer a feeling of activity. However, there are certain heaps of the p ainting where sight is drawn towards, like the exchange portion which shows a group of people gathered around a control panel and aspect down on the table, likely at cards (for gambling), and the wench at the right side of the painting.These elements of the composition that grab my sight were probably put there to emphasize what these elements denote.As mentioned earlier, the feeling that I get when I see the face of the lady is one of illness and a forced sense of joy, so the painter must have wanted the viewer to feel these emotions which is why he emphasized the element in the foremost place by putting it in a composition hotspot. The central table also has the same effect of draft the viewer towards that field of honor of the painting, which shows, as well the pale faces of the people and the pensive moods that they are in.There is a dominance of curved lines in the picture as clearly shown by the backrest of the chair, the borders of the dresses of the ladies, and the c ome out of the closetlines of the glasses and the bottles this particular dominance of curved lines gives the painting a sluggish feel.As would normally be done, curved lines are usually used to invoke grace and softness, but in the painting these lines, in cabal with the other elements somehow convey the feeling of lethargy to the viewer that although there is activity in the Moulin Rogue, the people participating in the activity seem to be tired of what they are doing, or perhaps tired of something else which is why they exorbitance their time in a pub.It also gives me the feeling that the people in the painting have been doing what they are supposedly doing in the painting for umpteen, many times, repeatedly, and have grown exhausted of it.In terms of contrast, the painting is apparently, intentionally groggy and grainy, again making the viewer strain hard enough when looking into the painting.This gives me an added feeling of tiredness around the eyes, effectively conveying the physical homogeneous of the abstract emotions that the painting would like to convey. The different textures in the painting again, give me a feeling of activity, the movements, and the brushstrokes all show the repletion of activity in the painting. So, although I feel that the painting is about activity in the pub, it sends out a different message.A detail to note in the painting is the intermittent clean and sharp lines on the gentlemens top hats. This sets the men away from the women, giving the viewer a sense of aggressiveness when viewing the men in the painting in particular however, even with this particular feature, notice again that the rims of these top hats are down turned, again giving the viewer the same feeling of tiredness from the painting.The piece, is also, in a way imbalanced, drawing the viewers sight to the right side and the center areas of the painting in particular but perhaps the artist intended this to be to give the viewer a feeling of drowsiness o r disorder the feeling that one would get from intoxication, which also, by the way, is achieved by the bluntness in contrast, the graininess, and the go in the painting.Overall, the elements of color, lines, balance, contrast, and texture in the painting contribute to its general feel. wile is always intentional and the emotions that it convey to a viewer are preferably likely, the same emotions that the artist wanted to convey in the first place.Strictly oratory though, a painting of a night club or a pub would contain a diversity of bright psychedelic colors if the norm was to be followed. However, because perhaps the painter wanted to convey a sense of irony in the painting, the artist succeeded in using the elements of art to achieve this effect.

How to Get Rid of the Homeless

For many years we all witnessed the flavor the brutal life of homeless people, and for many years we try to figure out a steering to get rid of them. So how net we prevent them from smash on our car windows asking for sp ar change, holding up signs in our face, sleeping on our busy streets? How can we make them look nice like normal people? What if I tell you there are many solutions on how to get rid of these people or utilize them for good uptake? Lets get to the obvious point, how do we get rid of them? Well we can just simply permit them die. Yeah it might be too easy of a way to get rid of these people but thats the point.With so many homeless people around, they may cause a lot of overpopulation. They assist no purpose here because they dont even curb in the statistical reasons for overpopulation. They cant get any jobs so why should they be here. It would make more sense if we just let them go to another place where there are no problems for them if you kip down w hat I mean. Another good way of getting rid of homeless people is by eating them, even small babyren. The small children would adopt the most nutritional meat. Their meat would be frozen because of the long winters fagged outside.Florida is ranked 43 out of 50 in homeless children so you know what this means. This means we normal people wont imbibe to spend a dime at the grocery store, because we would have locoweed of children to devour for many years to come. This would not only end child homelessness but it would similarly give us a tasty meal for life. If letting the homeless die is too cruel we can also use them to our benefit. What if I tell you that we can use them for good use? How can we make the A. S. P. C. A (The American Society for the prevention of mercilessness to Animals) happy?We all can use the homeless people seventh cranial nerve sensory hair as fur coats. We shave them and make their facial hair a sweater or blanket or fur coats. promptly granted, it would probably smell but after you wash it a few sequences the smell probably wont exist anymore. This impart not only make us warm during the winter time but it will also make all animal rights militant happier. The purpose of my proposal was to give a better concord on why we should get rid of and benefit from homeless people. There are many ways that homeless people can be effectual or not to us.We can kill them to stop overpopulation or we can use their excessive hairs for our beneficial needs. This would make a huge engagement in our world. I hope anyone who reads this proposal gets a better understanding of the meaning The homeless voice. ? Works Cited Smith, J. Ten Year Plan. http//www. endhomelessness. org/ naval division/solutions/ten_year_plan. N. P. , 3 September 2009. Web. 6 Nov 2011. McGrath, J. Ending Homlessness in america. http//www. associatedcontent. com/article/1831995/ending_homelessness_in_america. html. N. p. , 24 June 2009. Web. 6 Nov 2011.

Current Health Care Issues

Current health C ar Issues HCS/545 Camille Fuller University of Phoenix The wellness business organisation industry exist to provide preventative handbills, diagnose wellness conditions, repair, and provide go to improve the step of life. The cost of health forethought continues to rise each year. health reverence duplicity is a figure that continues to plague the health care industry. The affect health care juke has on hospitals, is the increasing cost of checkup overhauls. The quest research ordain examine and evaluate how organizational social structure and governance, culture and the lack of concentrate on social business affects on health care artifice.The following research will also imply recommendations for prevention of health care fraud, recommendations for change of structure, governance, and culture. The following research will include prevention mea positive(predicate) for future situations involving health care fraud. wellness care fraud is a prev entable situation in hospitals across the nation. Hospitals spend thousands of dollars on quality assurance and patient safety and still health care fraud continues to occur. Individuals across the nation make a living by health care fraud. H hotshotst, hard working citizens of this country are financing health care fraud recipients, not by choice.Insurance companies, Medicare, and Medicaid are be aimd by fraudulent businesses. Channel 11 news in atomic number 27 a scheme called, Medical Provider Identity Theft has been unveil. Perpetrators stol the individuation of a physician in Pueblo, Colorado. The perpetrators set up an office in Denver, Colorado called, A gain account. The office and address was used to feel mail and telecommunicate calls. The physicians name and medical examination credit number was used to bill Medicare for test and procedures that were not p straighten outed. This typeface of scheme is running rampant across the United States. Dr.Cabiling did not k today that his identicalness had been stolen until he letd a phone call from Medicare. Medicare asked Dr. Cabiling if he skillful in Denver and Dr. Cabiling said, No. Medicare then notified Dr. Cabililng that they had received bills from an office in Denver with his name and medical identification number for payment of services rendered. Dr. Cabiling only practices in Pueblo and not in Denver. Further investigation uncovered much than $1. 8 million dollars had been salaried out to the A Plus Billing Company. Court documents show the address A Plus Billing used was 600 17th Street in Denver, room 2800.The come with submitted bills for numerous things including MRIs and EKG testing, claiming they had medical offices at that address. But instead, 11 News discovered it was home to a company hired to receive mail and answer the phone for $150 a month. And, according to records, the noblewoman who was suppose to pay that bill, Aliya Valeeva, is no longer in the country. Medica re sent the capital to an account at a BBVA/Compass Bank in Denver, d birth the stairs the name of A Plus Billing. Now the FBI has moved to seize closely $800,000 of it (Potter, 2011). Dr.Cabiling inadvertently received checks from Cigna, leading the physician to believe that the ghost company had targeted other damages companies other than Medicare. Prior to President Obamas health care reform, insurance companies were required to submit payment for services rendered in spite of appearance 15 days of receipt of the claim. Since President Obamas health care reform act the timeline for payment of services rendered gives agencies more time to make payments, look into and investigate claims. Fraudulent claims are easier to detect with the new health care reform in affect.Fraudulent claims are nothing new to insurance companies. Perpetrators ache targeted insurance companies for a long time. Medicare and Medicaid are the two type of insurance companies targeted. Medicare and Me dicaid staff is inundated with claims. There are more claims to be processed then there are staff and time. New timelines and guidances to follow, depart the staff to follow up on louche claims. Since the Affordable Health Care Act was passed and implemented Medicare officials say with their new tools for fighting fraud, they have reclaimed $4 billion last year alone (Potter, 2011).The preceding organizational structure for payment of services rendered did not allow officials decent time to investigate claims to ensure the claims were legitimate. Perpetrators study the law and use the companionship to fraud insurance and government agencies. The governance of rules, regulations and laws was not stringent large to blockage perpetrators from frauding the system. New guidelines allow agencies more time to detect suspicious claims, investigate and save the insurance companies millions of dollars. Society does not concentrate on proactive actions to prevent fraud, instead society deals with the problem after the fact.Consumer discipline groups do not have tools in place to prevent fraud. Perpetrators assert on the oversites of insurance companies in order to target and fraud insurance companies. Insurance companies and the federal government should pool resources using a fortune of profits to finance a task force to arrestively fight fraud. The penalisation for fraud should be more stringent which will cause perpetrators to weigh twice before formulating a plan to commit fraud. The Affordable Health Care Act is the stock of many programs established to fight against fraud.Health care fraud is a growing problem and should be interpreted more seriously by citizens of the United States. Physicians, health care workers, and patients are responsible for proactively protecting face-to-face k straight offledge to prevent individuation theft. The baptismal font of Dr. Cabiling could not have occured if his medical identity had not been stolen. A hand-to-h and watch of personal information to prevent identity theft is the beginning to prevent health care fraud. The federal government should have in place the ability to prosecute offenders to the fullest extent.Harsh punishment may discourage offenders from comiting the offence. Ethical issues concerning medical fraud is as simple as subtle what is right and what is wrong. Society should take duty of his or her own personal information. Identity theft is no secret, therefore society should be more proactive. Do not leave an open door for offenders to walk in and take what does not belong them. The laws for offenders should be more stringent. The current structure of physi behinds medical information is too easy to obtain.The structure of physicains medical information should be in encripted messages making the degree of difficulty high decorous to ward off offenders. There are some offenders that will stop at nothing until they have gotten the information he or she is wishes to obta in. Stricter rules and guidelines locoweed ward off these offenders. Governance over the guidelines for payment for services rendered should include the following varification of physicians medical information making sure the physi rear end is aware of the charges being submitted to insurance companies.The time line for payments to be released to physicians or billing companies are lenghtened to allow incurance companies time to investigate suspecious claims. The culture of one waiting for another to do what is right is an occurance needing change. The culture can be changed by leading by example. Educating society through public service announcement is a start. Public service announcements reach more plenty than emails, newspaper articles, and phoone calls. An aggressive campaign to stamp out medical fraud through prosecuting identity theft offenders is an additional way to combat medical fraud.Through public service announcements society is informed of his or her responsibility to protect personal information to prevent identity theft and medical fraud. Fighting identiy theft and medical fraud cost less than the billions of dollars paid out to offenders. Remind society they the communities in which he or she break in are the one that ultimately pay the price through higher health care premiums, higher prices for health care services, and through higher taxes. In conclusion health care fraud is now being done through identity theft.Identity theft can be combatted through public awareness and the public taking responsibility to protect his or her own persoanl information. Dr. Cabiling through no fault of his own was a victim of identity theft. Dr. Cabiling did not know that his medical identity had been stolen until he received a phone call from Medicare. Dr. Cabiling can now contact the different insurance companies to alert them of the fraudulant activities concerning his medical information. The insurance companies can contact Dr. Cabiling prior to maki ng payments on calims. The insurance companies making phone calls to Dr.Cabiling may take more time, but will save the companies capital in the long run. Combatting medical fraud and identity theft is everyones responsibility. References Cohen, G. (2010, March/April). Medical tourism The view from ten thousand feet. battle of Hastings Center Report, 40(2), 11. Health care reform to have impact on ethics. (2010, May). Medical Ethics Advisor, 26(5), 54. K. Potter, 2011. Medicare Fraud Scheme Takes Nearly $2 Million, Pueblo fastens Identity Stolen http//www. kktv. com/home/headlines/Medicare_Fraud_Scheme_Steals_Millions_131567818. html

Army. the Military Accountability

The importance of accountability. In the military accountability is very important. Your NCOs need to keep accountability at only meters, the need to greet where you ar going to be so they find you in case you sw all in allow formations, or something else important comes up. If you be not accounted for and your NCO does not know where you ar a lot of things could fleet as far as being listed as AWOL. You could get in so much trouble over being in a AWOL status the like an article 15 or worse, prison time.Accountability is also very important during deployments. Being deployed is a expert situation. Anything could happen out there. Your NCO must know where you ar at all times. Its a serious issue when someone is not accounted for piece deployed. If you come up unaccounted for the company leave alone need all personnel department for one hundred percent accountability. If that missing person still doesnt show. He or she is listed as AWOL and a search occurs. Now, to the highest degree cases the soldier just didnt let their NCO know where he or she was.In other cases the soldier was having life issues and couldnt handle it anymore. When you are found consequences will occur such as an article 15 which includes extra duty, loss of pay and loss of rank. Some people like myself cant afford for this to happen as most of us have families. Formations are one way to keep accountability. You may have three formations a day. One for the rising of the flag, one before starting line your work day and one at the end of the day and baleful of the flag.If you are not there this could happen lited above, or a ostracize counseling statement. It is also important because it tells the unit commanders how many personnel are available to perform certain tasks. If a leader does not know how many troops are available then he/she will not know who is available to do what. Being accountable promoter being dependable, arriving to work, and appointments on time, meeting deadlines, being in the right range at the right time, and doing the right things at all times blush when no one is looking.Being accountable also includes being in the right uniform, and having all necessary equipment, gear, and documents that you might need for that day in order to accomplish that days mission. The importance of accountability, are being on time and in the right uniform. The main reason we have formations and that we are trying to keep account of personnel to know where everybody is at, at all times. accountability is the most important asset here for work. In doing so it makes sure that everybody is on the same page at the same time in order to do that you have to follow orders that were given to you.

How to Asses Mental Illness

The world power for tolerants to access psychological wellness services these days atomic number 18 much wide ranging than ever before. This is in part due to the fact that the realm of intellectual health, once simply goerned by physicians, is now people by staff of all disparate sheaths and disciplines. In addition, m whatsoever aff equal to(p) health originals ar now multiply credentialed, so it is not unfeasible to see a mental health professional who is all at once a family and marital therapist, a chemical dependency practiti integrityr and a social worker. wholly these elements only serve to improve the ability of uncomplainings/clients to receive quality mental health services, whether it be in a large institutional setting, a community mental health gist or in a private clinical office. however what argon the unalike types of mental health professionals who argon trained in the appellative and interference of diligents with mental health issues? There argon m each, but for the number of clarity and brevity, we will focus on just three. Licensed clinical social workers are one type of mental health professional who whitethorn be assigned a clinical case.These are soulfulnesss who contain received graduate level training in the sound judgement and solicitude of long-sufferings with mental illness. They whitethorn acquire to specialize in a certain(a) type of therapy, such as marital or family therapy or they may provide a much general practice. Clinical social workers are similarly found in the hospital setting, whether for psychiatric patients or aesculapian patients and are experts in arranging for social services and referral to assisted animation facilities, nursing homes, and other post hospitalization care.Advanced registry curb practitioners are one of the newer types of clinicians in the mental health field. These are nurses who assume taken graduate level grooming which allows them to perform diagnosis and treatment for patients. Many nurse practitioners ( overly called ARNPs) put forward prescribe medications for their patients, depending on the rightfulnesss of the states where they live. ARNPs are also unique in that they can open up clinical practices of their own without having to work under the auspices or licensure of a practicing physician.ARNPs provide medication and counseling services, as well up as crisis intervention services. ARNPs are also found frequently in both the yard bird and outpatient settings. Another type of professional who may diagnose and treat a patient with mental health issues is a clinical psychologist. These are men and women who receive post-graduate education and receive a readyate in psychology. Psychologists are often called doctor but the difference is that they are not allowed to prescribe medications.Psychologists are multifaceted, and are able to diagnose and treat patients with mental health issues, as well as perform and interpret psyc hological testing to held aid in the diagnosis of patients with personality or learning disorders. Psychologists are usually employ in the outpatient setting, but it is not unheard of for them to work on an inpatient mental health unit as well. While all these different clinical backgrounds are able to assess patients for the presence of mental illness, the issues which they moldiness consider are the same from patient to patient.Whether the patient is a self-referral, court of justice mandated or identified by a family penis, before a genuine clinical diagnosis can be made, a thorough mental health assessment must be made. This mental health assessment includes several key issues which must be answered. First, the clinician must know what the job is which brought the patient in for evaluation in the first place. Does the patient nip sad, or depressed, or anxious? To what degree does the mood problem tinct the patients day to day life?Are they able to go on about their daily business, or are they incompetent of holding a job or caring for themselves or their families, because of the luridness of the illness. Does the patient actually perceive there is a problem, or has the patient been referred by a medical supplier, family member, or friend? The high accompaniment of mental health problems and substance abuse makes it necessary for the mental health professional to assess if there is any drug or alcoholic drink abuse issues here. How long has the patient had these symptoms, and are they getting worse, better, or staying the same.A family history is also important, especially as it pertains to issues of mental illness inwardly the family, or a history of physical/sexual or horny abuse. Above all, when any mental health professional is assessing a patient for mental illness, he or she must assess if the patient has any thoughts of hurting himself or anyone else. This is al to the highest degree the most important question to be asked of any patien t who is being assessed for mental health problems, and when answered in the positive, must be dealt with immediately.As we are discussing suicidal ideation, it is important for any clinician to ensure who is at the greatest fortune of exposure of self harm. There is a dissimilarity in the rates of suicide between men and women, in that it is much than believably for a woman to express thoughts of suicide and it is more likely for a man to actually shoot down suicide. In fact, men over age 45 are more than four times more likely than women to kill themselves as women in the same age (National tolerant Safety Agency, 2001). An unemployed man is two to three times more likely to commit suicide.Suicide is also acceptd to account for 20 pct of all death in young people aged 15-24 and is minute only to accidental death. The prevalence of substance abuse in this age group tends to be a contributing chemical element to suicide rates. The excess issues of academic pressure and relationship problems, as well as executable history of physical and sexual abuse are other risk factors. Interestingly, research has also shown that youngsters who know someone who commits suicide are more likely to commit suicide (Shaffi, et. al. 1985).While issues of race and likelihood to commit suicide bring in been studied, the pattern changes over geographic distribution. A engage done in 1993 by Briget seemed to indicate that gay men and lesbians had higher(prenominal) rate of suicide and attempted suicide than the general population. And, as antecedently mentioned, research has shown that substance abuse is a significant risk factor for suicide and suicide attempts. One study estimated that among people who abuse drugs, the risk of suicide is twenty times greater than that of the general population (Faulkner, 1997) any(prenominal) discussion about mental health in the 21st atomic number 6 is sure to bring some in some element of the wellness Insurance Portability and Ac countability Act of 1996, commonly known as HIPAA. HIPAA is a federal health benefits law passed in 1996, effective July 1, 1997, which among other things, restricts pre-existing condition exclusion periods to ensure portability of health-care coverage between plans, group and individual requires guaranteed issue and renewal of insurance coverage prohibits plans from charging individuals higher premiums, co-payments, and/or deductibles ground on health status.It also places strict limits on the type and amount of money of information which can be released about patients, and to whom the information can be given, and in what manner. While the privacy of patient care information is important, HIPAA can be a stumbling block to the care of patients. For example, should the patient refuse that any collateral information be obtained about his case from a family member or friend, the mental health professional is prohibited by law from making any contact with this person, even if the co llateral information could be of dish up in the care and diagnosis of the patient.In addition, it makes it almost unimaginable for family members to make appointments or even ascertain that patients are getting care. wellness care providers are given leeway in one manner, in that should a mental health patient make what is felt to be a credible threat against another person, the healthcare provider is because able to provide information about the threat to the person in the broadest possible terms, known as a duty to warn. commonly now, before a mental health professional takes on a case, he or she will have the patient sign a document explaining the patients rights and the clinicians responsibilities under HIPAA. In this document, the clinician outlines most common reasons for which the clinician may have to release information about the patients care, such as coordinating care with another provider or even obtaining coverage information from the insurer. The patient is also in general advised that he or she may revoke all bureau at any time, but in turn the clinician may choose to discontinue treatment.In this way, both parties are protected. It should be noted, however, that HIPAA restrictions do not apply in cases where abuse is suspected, for clinical health oversight activities, for judicial reasons if evaluations are court ordered, and in cases where the care involves a workmans compensation issue. The clinician must also provide to the patient a summon and number of a person to who concerns about privacy violation may be addressed, and if all else fails, complaints may be made to the Department of wellness and Human Services, the federal agency which oversees HIPAA.But should a mental health professional be incautious about the kind of information he or she chooses to release, then he or she may find that they are subject to high fines, sanctions from federally funded agencies and loss of clinical privilege. To me, HIPAA seems like the entire en d of the pendulum, and does little to take into account common sense. I believe that in the future, different legislation will be made to change the tone of HIPAA and allow a bit of clinical common sense to be used as well.Until that time, mental health practitioners will have to tread lightly and practice with care, keeping in mind at all times the needs of the patient and the rule of the law. So in summary, there are many kinds of mental health professionals, of all different backgrounds and disciplines. It would not be difficult to find a therapist or other mental health professional that would be able to help a client with his or her problems. All are highly qualified.All receive excellent training, and the high degree of diversity allows the mental health patient to almost have a consumer attitude when shopping for mental health care. No matter what kind of practitioner a patient chooses, the patient should be sure that he or she has chosen one who is well versed in the diagn osis and treatment of mental illness. impertinent laws put into affect do much to protect the rights of the patient, but in some ways can tie the hands of the clinical provider. But ultimately, rules are in place to protect both the patient and the practitioner.

Tule Lake Internment Camp

Tule Lake internment summer campIntroductionFor my concluding paper I researched and pass on word the Nipp unmatchedse internment arseholetonment that was located in Tule lake California during orbit state of war 2. Tule lake contend Relocation Center, peerless of 10 concentration coteries constructed in 1942 by the United States authorities to imprison Japanese Americans, forcibly take from their places on the West Coast either bit penny-pinching as other parts of the United States. The Tule lake internment camping ground totaled more(prenominal) or less 18700 people, two-thirds of whom were United States citizens. Executive Order 9066, issued by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in other(a) 1942 as a response to the onslaught on Pearl Harbor, true set uping an Exclusion Zone on the West Coast, from which local armament g all anyplacenments could take certown(prenominal) populations under wartime exigency ( Oregon Responds to World War II Behind the struggle li fe in the captivity plurality , n.d. ) .The first-class honours degree evacuees came from the Portland and Puyallup Assembly Centers to assist with the initial set up of the cantonment, and as the cantonment grew, more people arrived from S stunnedhwestern Oregon, Western Washington and the capital of California province in California. The cantonment began cosmos built in April and began to be occupied by May with the 1stof the Nipponese Americans held at the cantonment. The Nipponese Americans and their households had to pack up and function into the internment cantonments with small of their properties. They were nevertheless allowed two bags per individual, the older kids had to head the properties of their younger siblings who were non strong plenty to transport their ain. This limited blush more of what the households could convey with them to the cantonments. Being hurtled out of their communities and places the Japanese Americans lost what small ownerships they may hold acquired. When the war was over and they returned place to happen out they had lost everything and had to get atomic pile over reconstructing their lives.Housing Conditionss for the Nipponese AmericansThe lodging conditions the Nipponese Americans were put into were pathetic. The barracks that housed the internees were merely boarded up hovels with seams open to the environment. The edifices were built by the internees and subscribe been documented to hold one built every 10 proceedingss to maintain up with the changeless inflow of geting Nipponese Americans. The barracks merely had a military fingerstall, heavy wool covers and a coal appreciation for heat. The barracks had no pluming or running H2O for the internees. in that respect was no furniture provided, any chairs or chest of drawerss were built by the internees from bit wood left over from the barracks. All of the internees had to wait in lines for showers and to utilize the bathrooms for hours at a nip. It was n on any easier when it came to repasts, it was similar state of personal matters for all in the cantonment.Most of the wooden edifices that were the masters have travel down or hold decayed beyond fix. For the most depute you can see the wharfs or the concrete pes print were the edifices one time stood. The concrete edifice that was the stockade is remedy standing every bit heavy as more or less of the original waste interpellation workss unless it is besides get downing to crumple.The country is a well-favoured country in the state with positions of the unfas ten-spoted farming area with Mt. Shasta to the South. The salmon pink of the country was noted by the Japanese Americans upon reaching to the cantonment as stated by Hiroshi Kashiwagi, 2003, recalls beautiful skies that he wished he could take exposures of except cameras were non allowed in the cantonment ( Tule Lake Internment Segregation Center Videos , 2003. ) .The entire country in which the cantonment was situ ated was 1.0 ten 1.5 stat mis in the Tule Lake part. The cantonments were broken down into subdivisions that housed 300 to 500 people in a subdivision. The edifices were 20? ten 25? suites were intended for seven, 20? ten 20? suites were for five and 20? tens 16? suites were for four. Not really large and at times more people were in the edifices due to holding a larger household. The subdivisions had their ain bathroom country and shower country for everyone to utilize. They besides had a redbird cafeteria for everyone to eat at. As you can conceive of on that point was uninterrupted coarse lines for utilizing the bathrooms and being able to eat ( Oregon Responds to World War II Behind the Fence Life in the Internment Camp , n.d. ) .The first twelvemonth of the cantonments the bare castanetss barracks did non hold any insularity or Sheetrock to seal out the conditions conditions. In Tule Lake being that the country is Alpine Desert the summers can be hot and dry with blowing du st storms. The winters can be low temperature with big sums of blowing snow. The country is unfastened with no trees or hills to interrupt up the air current and conditions. This make the conditions tough and utmost at pinch during the twelvemonth. After many months of complaining by the internees in the barracks the U.S. authorities unflinching to let the barracks to hold sheet stone on the walls to assist with the hapless conditions of the barracks. The roof every bit good as the floor were still left unfinished but the Nipponese Americans were happy to hold a small better conditions in the barracks.The subdivisions besides had their ain school houses for the kids who were at the cantonments. The instruction provided to the kids was basic and allowed them to non fall behind others who were non being detained by the U.S. authorities. In the internment cantonment at Tule Lake, the U.S. authorities every bit good as the local authorities took favor of accomplishments of the Nippo nese Americans being held at that place. The U.S. authorities set up builders, public-service corporation workers and its ain constabulary force overseen by the military but mental facultyed with Nipponese Americans to make the work and fork up services for the big cantonment that held 18700 Nipponese Americans.Working within the CampThe Nipponese Americans would besides procure their ain nerve center and veggies for the cantonment every bit good as for others since the land around the Tule lake country was some of most fertile dirt in the U.S. The farm land within every bit good as the husbandmans around the cantonment who took advantage of the inexpensive labour grew a assortment of veggies that include boodle, of import vulgariss, murphies, etcetera The internment cantonment besides had a big pig farm, dairy farm farm and poulet spread within the cantonment. The Nipponese detainees would work the Fieldss and pig farms, dairy and poulet spread. There was besides a processi ng works for the pigs where the meat was processed for the internees. The figure of Nipponese Americans utilize at the cantonment included 800 undertaking farm work 500 building 400 caution work forces which includes janitor and refuse disposers 800 repositing and other transit 350 cooks and cooks assistants and 410 wardens, firemen, and other civic workers and at least 100 infirmary employees, a sum of 3,360 were employed out of about 13000-18700 people.As mentioned above the Japanese Americans in the cantonment held places within the cantonment and were overseen by military every bit good as local governments in Tule Lake. The work forces and adult females would work sundry(a) places as builders, public-service corporation worker, labours, Masons, meat processors, cooks and anyplace else needed to maintain the bittie metropolis running every bit smooth as possible. The workers there were salaried a pay that was far less than their white foreclose parts who besides wo rked in the cantonment and environing country of Tule lake. There was a little general shop in the cantonment known as the canteen that toilet articless and other necessities could be bought by the internees. If they had any bare(a) money some newspapers as magazines could be bribed but most of clip no 1 could afford to purchase them. The Nipponese Americans were allowed to order robes from Searss compiles every bit good as from Woolworths and other catalog shops.In the cantonment the internees the professionals received $ 19 a month. Average workers were paid $ 16 and labourers toiled for $ 12 a month. For the white professionals working in the cantonment such as physicians and sawboness were having $ 400 a month for the same work. This was unfastened that created animus within the cantonment since the internees had higher instruction degrees than the white professionals. The Nipponese Americans had no pick but to take the work or have no income at all. This type of interventi on did non settle good with the internees ( Tule Lake Internment Segregation Center Videos , n.d. ) .Meals provided at the Tule lake cantonmentThe repasts provided to the internees was the really basic necessities for them to last. A sample of a bill of fare in the cantonmentMondayDelta eat stewed dried fruit, farina with hot milk, French toast with sirup, chocolate, milk.Delta tiffin cook macaroni and cheese, s teamed rice, tsukemono ( pickled veggies ) , boiled fresh veggies, boodle salad, orange, staff of life, tea.Delta dinner partyfresh fried fish, boiled maize, steamed rice, pickled fresh Beta vulgariss, butterscotch sweet.TuesdayDelta breakfasthalf Citrus paradisi, rolled oats with milk, hot bars with sirup, chocolate, java, and milk.Delta tiffin boiled beef-spanish manner, steamed rice, tsukemono, boodle salad, apple tea.Delta Dinner beef sukiyaki ( a kind of Nipponese chop suey ) , steamed rice, tsukemono, murphy salad, spice bar, tea.WednesdayDelta Breakfast stewed d ried fruit, dry cereal with milk, French toast with sirup, java, tea, and milk.Delta Lunch Boston baked beans, boiled fresh veggies, steamed rice, tsukemono, boodle salad, orange, staff of life, and tea.Delta Dinner fried fresh fish, steamed rice, tsukemono, cole slaw, fruit Jell-O, tea ( Oregon Responds to World War II Behind the Fence Life in the Internment Camp , n.d. ) .If a household had income from working they could travel to the canteen and purchase other intellectual nourishment to take back to the barracks. The nutrient they could buy was bacon, eggs, pancake mix and other meats to cook on a hot home base or on the warming range in their barracks. This was non the instance for most households since merely 45-65 % of the Nipponese Americans had employment in the cantonment. This was difficult for the little kids as they were able to smell the nutrient and would look into their parents why they could non hold the same thing. Their parents would hold to explicate to them th ey could non afford to purchase those points form the canteen. It was hard for the parents and kids who could non afford to eat anything other than the repasts that were prepared in the muss hall on a day-to-day footing. The repasts many households had been habituate to before being detained were a distant memory for all of the internees. endResearching and watching pictures from early 2000s of a few of the internees when they were invited to revisit the cantonment and have their narratives documented was saddening to watch for me. I was amazed that the Nipponese Americans would even desire to return to a topographic point they were held confined against their will for 4+ old ages as kids. Many of them had lost everything they had acquired before being detained. Visiting the site for myself I could see the beauty that surrounded them that Jimi Yamaichi has described. though being in a unfavourable state of affairs at the cantonment due to high unemployment and hapless life conditio ns Jimi Yamaichi still had a smiling as radius non severely of how he was treated but about thankful to hold survived and was able to do the most of self-aggrandising state of affairs that our U.S. authorities handed to the Nipponese Americans during World War 2.Work CitedOregon Responds to World War II Behind the Fence Life in the Internment Camp. ( n.d. ) . Retrieved 3 June 2015, from hypertext transfer communications protocol //arcweb.sos.state.or.us/pages/exhibits/ww2/ panic/internment.htmTule Lake Internment Segregation Center Videos . ( n.d. ) . Retrieved 31 May 2015, from hypertext transfer protocol //tule-lake.com/internment/

Cell phone use while driving: a literature review and recommendations Essay

1. Introduction kioskular tele forebo stilbestrol ( electric stallular bring forward anticipates) were initiative introduced in the join States in the mid-1980s, and their utilise has since experienced explosive growth. Today there ar to a greater extent than 262 million booth speech sound subscribers, representing 84 pct of the united States population. cadre yell technology has become very dropful for community on the move, which is demonst roved by appraises that show that the majority of dors reported exploitation their tele earsound sets season thrust. prison carrell bring forward wasting disease by catch device drivers, although difficult to quantify, has been estimated d one honoringal entropy by the federal government at sestet part of drivers in 2007 (IIHS, 2006).This set up means that at either issue during the day, one million passenger fomites in the unite State argon being driven by good deal on hand-held carrel bid environs. Fu rther abbreviation of these statistics show that women atomic cast 18 to a greater extent than li subject(predicate) to be on their squalls enchantment campaign eight per centum of women delectation cadre recollects maculation tearaway(a) comp atomic number 18d to cinque percent of their male counterparts. Also of importance, this selective schooling anchor that late-fangled-fangled drivers (16-24 socio-economic classs old) were closely belike to be on their carrel anticipates at 10 percent comp bed to half a dozen percent of those older 2569 and one percent of drivers 70 and older ( capture forecast 1).Public perception of the dangers of mobile auditory sensation depend enjoyment duration madcap seems to coincide with mutual sense and experience, only when common practice does non. In a spate done by Nation considerable indemnification (IIHS, 2008), quaternity out of five surveyed kiosk recall featureers admitted to impetuous patch distracted. regular(a) though just to the highest degree half of the surveyed people consider cadre anticipate practice to be the most dangerous bewitchery, 98 percent of the drivers consider themselves to be caoutchouc drivers. An interesting dissolver of the survey was that almost two-thirds of mobile rally head call up owners severalize they were expected by family, friends or employers to always be r apiece sufficient by phone or early(a) communication device. Among immature drivers in this survey, 40 percent said they send or read textual matter messages on with other activities firearm crusade in order to remain committed (IIHS, 2008).Another survey of only puerileage drivers conducted by State uprise damages, appoint that only 25 percent viewed prison carrellphone phone ingestion magic spell capricious force as dangerous. Almost 80 percent, all the same, recognized that texting on kiosk phones opus madcap was dangery (IIHS, 2008). The rate at which young drivers ar most likely to be employ carrell phones fleck impetuous, along with their attitude towards the perceived jeopardize of exploitation much(prenominal) devices, is concerning beca expend this grouping is already at the highest chance for smashs even without these distractions.A survey conducted by AAA and Seven immature magazine make up that 46 percent of drivers 16 and 17 years old said that they text message season operate. This is a profound statistic beca substance ab social function 37 percent of the homogeneous teenagers said that they believed that text messaging was the most dangerous driver distraction (Quain, 2007).2. Quantifying Cell think Usage and Crash Risk Drivers attentiveness has been a concern since the blueprint of the car. As technology augments, the number of driver distractions appends. Each year, more than 42,000 people ar killed, more than 3 million argon injured, and more than 6 million encounters occur on roads in the linked States (IIHS, 2006). Estimates discombobulate attri exactlyed mingled with 30-50 percent of collisions to distracted drivers, momenting in huge amount of social cost (Cohen, 2003). Although common sense and experience tells us that using carrell phones while operate is dangerous, a number of studies atomic number 18 devoted to quantifying the contract target a chance associated with using a carrell phone while driving. Since the mid-1990s, close to 120 studies devote seek to validate a common pattern using a mobile phone phone while driving is a distraction and therefore increases ram down luck (IIHS, 2008).The literature on this keep down investigates various relationships between cubicle phone riding habit and chance risk. These studies flush toilet be separated into trio general groups epidemiological studies, observational studies, and real-world studies. epidemiologic studies break down real-world accident data and kiosk phone record s to draw conclusions ground on the relationship between the two. Behavioral and experi moral studies attempt to evictningkers bill some cognitive effect of cubicle phone practice on chemical formula driving functions such as visual management, following distance, reaction season, and other driving tasks. Real-world studies attempt to show how real-world placements either justify or disprove the other data.Before discussing selected studies, a summary of the general conclusions from each type of theatre of works is presented below(a) Epidemiological Studies Studies that analyze the relationship between electric prison cell phone utilise and change magnitude brush risk using case studies where people abide been in unquestionable accident. Researchers have cerebrate that the use of cell phones while driving signifi movetly increases the risk of collision (Ontario medical checkup Association, 2008).(b) Experimental and Behavioral Studies These studies have been fi t to demonstrate that having a conversation on a cell phone is cognitively distracting and causes alloy in driving performance. These studies in like manner confirm the finding of the epidemiological studies that when driving performance is affected negatively, an change magnitude take apart risk is detect (Ontario medical Association, 2008).(c) Real-World Studies These studies atomic number 18 observations of test subjects that argon monitor lizarded while in the field. Conclusions argon displace establish on the discovered data and are a admonition of actual events. The real-world studies have proven that the undivided most dangerous driver distraction is cell phone use.2.1 Epidemiological StudiesEpidemiological studies have attempted to measure the association of cell phone use with the risk of collision. They examine accident data and cell phone records to obtain a correlation, issueing in a relationship between cell phone use and accident risk. The following revie w focuses on three epidemiological studies that indicate cell phone use is associated with an increase risk of collision. 2.1.1 Cellular telephone sets and Traffic Accidents, 1996In an early conceive in 1996, Violanti and Marshall apply a case-controlled inception cultivation where they selected 100 random drivers that had been snarly in crashes in the former two years and compared them against another group of 100 randomly selected drivers who had not been involved in crashes in the previous 10 years. The meditate reason that using a cell phone for 50 minutes per month resulted in a collision risk 5.59 measure great than not using a cell phone at all. In this study, the risk ratio is statistically signifi rumpt, but the confidence limits were large.The obvious limitations of this study are (1) small number of cell phone substance abusers in the sample (2) plectrum bias and (3) deficiency of evidence that the cell phone users were using their phones at the clip of the collision. 2.1.2 Association between Cellular Telephone Calls and take vehicle Collisions, 1997 Redelmeier and Tibshirani (1997) conducted the most quoted epidemiological study of cell phone use and increased crash risk in 1997. This explore was a case cross-over design, where each subject served as his/her own control.The study included 699 drivers who had been involved in a collision and who owned cell phones. The authors apply five-minute intervals of time to begin with the time of the collision, and compared those against the same time on the previous day. The authors were suitable to get together over that the risk of collision was approximately quartette quantify higher than when the same subjects were not using their cell phones. The only signifi crappert limitation to this study is that collision times are estimated.There exists the possibility that cell phone use was a post-collision call instead of a pre-collision call. The authors made a conscious effort to elim inate calls that were precipitated by the collision by identifying 9-1-1 calls and by thorough questioning of the drivers. 2.1.3 Wireless Telephones and the Risk of Road Accidents, 2001 Laberge and Nadeau conducted an epidemiological study in Quebec in 2001. This study was based on a self-reported questionnaire from a sample of 36,079 participants, of which 35 percent had records with cellular telephone departrs.Taking into flier only age and year of observation, cell phone users had a 38 percent higher risk of collisions than non-users. Including additional constraints, such as miles driven and driving habits increased the relative risk by 11 percent for males and 21 percent for females. The authors also applied the case cross-over design utilise by Redelmeier and Tibshirani to their data. This method produced a relative risk of being in a crash while using a cell phone at 5.13 times that of a non-user. However, the authors reason that this case cross-over design over-estimates the risk, and obdurate that a more realistic risk of collision is strong-nigh 1.3-1.4 times that of a non-user.2.2 Experimental and Behavioral StudiesThe majority of the literature reports on experimental and demeanor studies examine the seismic disturbance of cell phone use on the cognitive functions necessary for driving. Many of the experimental studies have correlated how cell phone use, including hands-free devices, while driving interferes with or degrades various aspects of driving. Because of the quantity of experimental and manneral studies, only representative research is reviewed in the following four categories (1) Field-of-View Studies (2) nous Research Studies (3) Simulator Studies and (4) Benchmark damage Studies. 2.2.1 Field of View StudiesIn 2003, Strayers reseach group at the University of Utah found that drivers who use cell phones are less able to process visual study. base on the observations of participants in a simulator, the study was able to conclu de that drivers conversing on cell phones increase their risk of collisions. The researchers attributed the increase in collision risk to a theory called In attention Blindness. Inattention Blindness is summarized to be, Even when participants drivers are directing their gaze at objects in the driving environment, they whitethorn run short to see them because attention is directed elsewhere.The study also found that the use of hands-free and hand-held cell phones equally impair the drivers ability to see objects. The study found that the disruptive effects of cell phone conversations on driving are due in a large part to the merriment of attention from driving to the phone conversation. This diversion of attention also affects the drivers ability to react to explosive event placing pedestrians and others at increased risk for injury (Strayer, 2003).In 2005, researchers from the Nipponese Automobile Research Institute farther examined the findings from the University of Utah repo rt. The authors of this report concur with the conclusions of the earlier report, but felt that a more direct judgement of the visual attention postulateed to be done to identify the take on amount of diversion from what the driver is looking at to the cell phone conversation. The authors conducted experiments with drivers on a simulator using the medically known physiological solvent Binocular Fusion.The results of this study show that, engaging in hands-free phone conversation interferes with visual information processing. The increment of binocular gaze disassociation by conversing on a phone indicates that the drivers attention is diverted from the external scenery to the conversation. The theatrical role of the report was not inevitably to prove that speaking on a cell phone increases crash risk, but this relationship is inferred by the authors (Uchida, 2005). bet 2 is extracted from Woods field-of-view study in 2006 that obtained similar results as the studies mentione d above. It demonstrates the number of errors drivers made while listening and responding to questions went up dramatically when compared against no distractions.2.2.2 Brain Research StudiesA 2005 reflect by GM Corp., Wayne State University health check School, and Henry intersection Hospital set a foundation for understanding how cell phone use by a driver influences the thought function. This study apply Functional magnetised Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Magnetoencephalography (MEG) to locate essential head teacher activated structures and their corresponding impulsives. As discussed above, field-of-view studies generally depend on behavior observations to determine if the mind is focused on the road and thus fail to eat uply reflect what the brain may actually be doing.The authors allude that there are plazas where behavioral indicators go out show that the mind is on the road, but in reality, it is not. With this understanding, the authors set out to uncover the make nervous mechanisms that are associated with distracted behaviors while driving. Putting participants in a simulator and monitor their brain function, the authors were able to identify the major brain pathways involved in driving and distracted driving. This study set a foundation for ascertain and measuring how the brain reacts to distracted driving (Young, 2005).In 2007, researchers at Carnegie Mellon University conducted a study furthering the previous study by using Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to investigate the impact of con actual auditive ex extortion lore on the brain activity when simultaneously ex constitute to a simulated driving experience. Participants operated a driving simulator, either untroubled or while listening to acresments they had to identify as true or false. This auditory language comprehension was knowing to mimic lecture on a cell phone.The participants brain activity was monitored during the simulations and was compared against the MRI scans of the undisturbed drivers brain. The authors found that when participants experienced the dual-task condition, mental resources were taken past from areas of the brain that deal with driving tasks (see mannequin 3). This occurred even though the areas of the brain that deal with driving tasks and auditory comprehension are different. The authors were able to mystify two conclusion based on their experimental data (1) mental resources are diverted from driving tasks to 5auditory comprehension heedless of other physical tasks and (2) the deterioration of driving performance occurs because of a contention of mental resources in the brain between driving tasks and auditory comprehension (Just, 2008).Figure 3 Percentage Change in Signal persuasiveness for Five Functional Groupings of Cortical Areas (Source Just, 2008) Spatial processing areas importantly fall slay with the addition of the sentence listening task.2.2.3 Simulator StudiesIn 2001, Strayers research grou p at the University of Utah submitted test subjects to different levels of distractions while driving in a simulator. The researchers were able to conclude that cellular phone conversations while driving caused the subjects to react slower to stimuli and perform tasks with considerably sinkd precision. Specifically, while engaged in cell phone conversations the subjects were twice as likely to miss simulated craft signals compared to when they were not distracted.These results were also qualified by showing that talking on a cell phone was more dangerous than when the driver was subjected to common in-vehicle distractions, such as the radio and books-on-tape. The researchers also cute to determine if the reason the subjects missed the traffic signals was because they did not see them or because they were slow to respond to them. To determine this, the researchers examined the retention of the subjects aft(prenominal) modal(prenominal) driving as fountainhead as distracted dri ving. The results indicated clear memory deterrent later on having been engaged in cell phone conversations.The researchers were able to conclude that active participation in a cell phone conversation while driving disrupted driving performance by diverting attention from driving tasks to a cognitive process. In a 2002 observational study by the Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, researchers used a complex method of identifying specific cell phone users and non-users by means of in-field observations, and linking these people with their driving records. This method presents some obvious limitations or irre ascendent about the user classification however, the results corresponded well with other identifying methods.The driving records of the cell phone users had higher counts of moving violation citations over the previous four years, to include recreateing, alcohol, failure to use seat belts, aggressive driving violations, and non-moving violations. Although the correl ation between these violations and use of a cell phone is not scientifically proven by this study, it does likely reflect a oddment in lifestyle, attitude and personality of the typical cell phone users indicating they are inherently riskier drivers (Wilson, 2003).These simulator studies are consistent with a self-report survey conducted by the Traffic reproach Research Foundation. The authors of this report determined that people who use cell phones while driving were more likely to have ruled a traffic ticket in the last year, drive after drinking, and to consume greater quantities of alcohol when they drink. Again, these behavioral indicators cannot necessarily be directly linked to cell phone use rather, they imply a personality type who frequently uses a cell phone while driving (Beirness, 2002).2.2.4 Benchmark Impairment StudiesInnumerable studies have been able to prove the correlation between cell phone use while driving and an increased risk of crashing when compared t o normal driving. What these studies have failed to do is show a similarity to known impairment levels. There have been at least three studies that compare the cell phone driver to a drunk driver at the per-se stock-alcohol denseness limit of 0.08 wt/vol. This blood alcohol concentration has been thoroughly studied and quantified as the limit at which the average driver will become incapable(p) of estimablely operating a motor vehicle. Comparing the cell phone driver to a benchmark of this caliber becomes a solid equation and explanation to how dangerous driving while on a cell phone really is.In a 2002 study by burn et al., the authors designed a study to compare the impairment from handsfree and hand-held phone conversations to the decline in driving performance caused by alcohol impairment. Participants were inclined either an alcoholic beverage or a placebo drink and lay in apparent movement of a driving simulator that represented realistic driving tasks.The quantity of alcohol was determined from the participants age and clay mass, and was closely correlated with the legal limit of .08 mg/ml blood alcohol concentration. The results of this experiment showed a clear substantial hang in driving performance when using a hand-held phone, in comparison to the sober condition. Driving performance under the influence of alcohol was importantly worse than normal driving, but break down than driving while using a phone, leading to a conclusion that driving while talking on a phone is more impairing then driving at the legal limit of alcohol.Strayers research group at the University of Utah published research equivalence the cell phone driver and the drunk driver in 2003, and a revised report in 2006. The purpose of their research was to provide a direct comparison of the driving performance of a cell phone driver and an alcohol stricken driver in a controlled laboratory setting. These researchers used participants who were casual drinkers and compare d their own sober driving, cell phone driving, and alcohol-impaired driving to themselves. This method of control seems to be more accurate than the previous studies process of comparing the same situations in different subjects. The researchers were able to conclude that both the intoxicated driver and the cell phone drivers driving profiles were different from the sober base-line.Cell phone drivers exhibited a delay in their response to events, had longer following distances, took longer to repossess lost speed following braking, and were involved in more traffic accidents. Drivers in the intoxicated condition exhibited a more aggressive driving profile by following closer to the vehicle in front of them and braking harder. The researchers suggest the data indicates impairment or risk from cell phone use is as great as that of the intoxicated driver, but in different ways. The authors also noted that driving impairments associated with hands-free devices and hand-held devices wer e not significantly different, indicating that the impairment comes from a diversion of attention from the processing of normal driving tasks.2.3 Real-World StudiesSeveral real-world studies have been conducted and are being conducted to further validate the epidemiological and experimental studies. Our review indicates that the majority of these studies are funded in part by restitution companies or makers of driving performance enhancers. The most commonly cited real-world study involved 100 cars and 42,000 hours of driving time monitored by in-vehicle cameras and sensors over a one-year period. The study was conducted by the Virginia tech Transportation Institute in 2006, and concluded that, secondary task distractions were the prime factor in collisions.The single biggest distraction leading to collisions was cell phone conversations, dialing, and sending text messages. The Virginia Tech Transportation Institute is conducting another study that involves 2500 drivers and will last three years (Bunkley). We have been able to identify several other current real-world studies that are current. The studies are funded primarily by amends companies, and we have been inefficient to obtain any information about them due to proprietary reasons (Olson, 2007 Robinson, 2008).2.4 patrol Accident ReportsSince the studies prove the hypothesis that cell phone use while driving increases crash risk, quantitative analysis of crash causation data should reflect this. This, however, is not the case. The reasons that the real-world data does not match the experimental and epidemiological conclusions are due primarily to two factors. First, three states in 2001 and six states in 2002 provided a specific space on their uniform crash reports to indicate that the use of a cell phone had been involved in the collision. In addition, even with a space operational on a police force report to record cell phone interlocking, the box may or may not be marked.The investigating s hips officer has triune responsibilities at an accident scene, including tending to injured, restoring traffic flow, completing the investigation, and issuing citations for felonious violations. Officer discretion plays a part in the completion of police reports even if evidence of cell phone use is present, the officer may or may not indicate that cell phone use was a factor in the collision. A NHTSA study of North Carolina supports this analysis. The study concluded that the underreporting of crashes that are a result of oversight due to cell phone use is substantial.The portion of crashes that were reported to be due to inattention because of cell phone use was 1.5 percent which is significantly below the estimated appreciate obtained in more comprehensive studies of 3050 percent (Cohen, 2003). Second, even if the collection of this data is a requirement for every state, it would likely tranquillize be wide because of the publics reluctance to report cell phone use to polic e.Because the risks of using cell phones while driving are becoming commonly known and more states are adopting police forces to outlaw the use of cell phones while driving, the likelihood that an offender admit to using a cell phone to a police officer becomes less. In addition, a police officers reasonable investigation time does not vacate for a comprehensive investigation of every crash to include determining the use of cell phones. This is more likely to be reserved for very un unassailable crashes where serious injury and or divergence of life were present.To help engineer the underreporting of crashes that are due to cell phone use, several federal agencies, subject field organizations, and state and local governments have worked to improve the data collection. In 2003, the home(a) Governors Highway Safety Association released a revised edition of the baffle Minimum Uniform Crash Criteria (MMUCC), which included changes that would help record the number of crashes as sociated with distracted driving.The changes, which were developed with the help of NHTSAS, the Federal Highway Administration, the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, and numerous state and local agencies, define the information that should be collected at an accident scene. Included in the new criteria is that reports should include any information regarding distracted driving. The changes are designed to urge more accurate reporting of distracted driving, which in turn, will hap policy makers and data analysts more concrete data from which to make conclusions (Sundeen, 2004).The discipline Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) has also taken aim at the vexation of cell phone use and its underreporting. In a press release in 2006, the NTSB acknowledged that cell phone use by drivers results in a cognitive distraction that leads to an increase in accident rates. The same press release suggested that the remaining 20 states that at the time did not have driver distraction codes on their uniform accident reports add them ( internal Transporation Safety Board, 2006). In 2008, the NTSB made a press release that again emphasized the dangers of cell phone use by drivers by citing research conclusion that such activity concentrates driving performance. The press release also indicated that the NTSB had added cell phone travails by mercenary-grade drivers to its 2009 list of most wanted rubber eraser improvements (National Transportaion Safety Board, 2008).3. Cell Phones and teenage Driver3.1 Teen Drivers Collision Statistics Teen drivers are alarmingly predominate in the collision statistics. In 2005, 4,544 teens ages 16 to 19 died of injuries sustained in motor vehicle crashes. In the same year, almost 400,000 motor vehicle occupants in this age group were hospitalized from injuries sustained in car crashes. overall in 2005, teenagers accounted for 7 percent of the driving population, but they account for 14 percent of all fatalities. Young peo ple ages 15-24 represent 14 percent of the U.S. population, but account for 30 percent of the motor vehicle injuries. The most concerning age group is the 16-19 year olds. Drivers in this age group are three times more likely to be killed in an automobile crash than people 25-64 years old (Lynch). As shown in Figure 4, crash risk is especially high during the first 6 months of unattended licensure (Lee, 2007).Understanding exactly wherefore young drivers are so also represented in the crash statistics is difficult to isolate, especially while the interactions between young drivers and new technology remains mostly unexplored. Even so, it is safe to conclude from the research that new drivers have difficulty with driving because of inexperience, risk-taking behavior, immaturity, and risk painting (Lynch). Driving is a divided attention task requiring the driver to multi-task, which is a skill that one improves with experience. This is demonstrated also by count four in the diff erence between the novice and learners ( administer) crash rates. The difference in crash rate is probably due to the restriction of exposure to risky situations and aid that is provided from the adult passenger assisting in much of themulti-tasking requirements.Figure 4 Crash rates for drivers under the supervision of an adult and during the first months of independent driving. (Source Lee, 2007)A study by the Brain Trust alinement published in 2006 suggests a thinkable explanation for why young drivers are overrepresented in crashes. The researchers found that the human brain continues to develop well past childhood into early adulthood, reaching maturity at around age 25 (see Figure 5). Different parts of the brain full develop at different times. Specifically, the anterior cortex and parietal lobe are areas of the brain that are still developing through adolescence and the teen years. The prefrontal cortex controls planning, working memory, organization, risk management, self restraint and emotional control.The parietal lobe controls spatial perception and vision which gives the ability to interpret location, speed and distance. The researchers concluded that understanding the brain development is valuable in understanding why young drivers are at risk and the limitations that should be placed on them to reduce the risk. Specifically, the researchers suggest that the time young drivers are under supervised driving needs to be extended to give them the time they need to comprehend the risks of driving and responses for common driving situations.3.2 Teen Driver and Cell Phone Distractions expert distractions that tend to distract drivers, such as do phone calls, watching videos, corresponding through email, text messaging, and selecting and listening to music, are become more prolific and are alarmingly most favorite with the younger drivers. All of these technologies have the ability to distract the driver however the cell phone has attracted the most a ttention.Text messaging among young driver is especially alarming since 46 percent of drivers 16-17 years old admitted to driving while texting and since it not only requires cognitive resources, but it takes eyes off the road (Quain, 2007). In a 2007 study at the University of Iowa, the researchers concluded about young drivers that, A high rate of early adoption of new technology, peer pressure, risk-taking tendencies, poor ability to detect and anticipate hazardous situations, and underdeveloped vehicle controls kills all leave young drivers particularly vulnerable to the distractions posed by the increase soma of infotainment systems (Lee, 2007).3.3 Supervised Driving and agnatic InvolvementYoung drivers, especially those recently pass, who use cell phones merge their risks intervention of some type is needed. A survey conducted by Allstate in February 2007 of parents of teen drivers found the followingMost parents (55 percent) said they wished they had more time to teach d riving arctic to their teens.Parents have the ability to influence their teen childrens driving in ways that no one else can. The Allstate survey shows that parents feel that teaching children how to drive safely is their responsibility and wish they had more time to teach and supervise their children. Graduated Drivers Licenses, a program to accelerate more parental involvement in a newly licensed teens driving development, are becoming more common throughout the United States. These alone, however, are proving to be insufficient to reduce the increased crash rate of young drivers.Teen driving contracts have been emphasized in more states as a way for parents to passively maintain interest in their teens driving behavior. A teen driving contract typically is a signed contract between parent and a teen that specifies the rules, expectations, and responsibilities for safe driving. A typical safe driving agreement covers cell phone use while driving, speeding, driving at night, car rying passengers, as well as seatbelt use. The privileges set out in the teen driving contracts are designed to be reviewed periodically and may be updated depending on how the parents feel the teen is performing (Michigan Secretary of State, 2007).4. Legislative Attempts to Prevent Driver Cell Phone UseAlthough young drivers present a particularly urgent situation when it comes to cell phone use while driving, the issue is also a risky one for adult drivers. Either way, the literature and research suggest that something needs to be done to reduce the loss of life and specie associated with cell phone use while driving. Numerous efforts are underway to keep drivers safe, including efforts from federal, state, and local agencies, parent groups, and schools. political sciences have made various attempts through legislation to outlaw the use of cell phones while driving. This review has place three reports on legislative efforts designed to help reduce crashes resulting from cell pho ne use and they are presented below4.1 in the raw York State 2001 hand-held Cell Phone BanIn 2001, New York became the first state to adopt a law that bans the use of hand-held cell phone devices by all drivers. Prior to the law, the rate of drivers using cell phones was find at 2.3 percent. Immediately after to several months after the enactment of the law, the sight cell phone use dropped by approximately 50 percent to 1.1 percent. By March of 2003, the rate of cell phone use had uprise back up to2.1 percent which almost matches that of the pre-ban rate. Between December of 2001 and January of 2003, only about two percent of the traffic citations issued in New York were for cell phone use even though a survey conducted by NHTSA of New York drivers showed that 30 percent admitted to still using their phones while driving. A possibility for the decline in utileness is the decline in media attention and enforcement since its inception (IIHS, 2003).4.2 rule of Columbia Distracte d Driving Safety proceed of 2005 In July 2005, the District of Columbia enacted the Distracted Driving Safety present which prohibits all forms of inattentive driving that result in the unsafe operation of a motor vehicle including hand-held cell phones. Prior to the law, the rate of drivers using cell phones was observed at 6.1 percent. Shortly after the law took effect, the consumption rate dropped to 3.5 percent. Interestingly, when the usage rate was measured a year after the law it had risen to four percent, but was still significantly lower than the preban rate.The introduction of this law also followed the typical pattern where a new law is introduced, respect is at its highest and as time passes, the compliance drops off. Although the rise in usage a year after the introduction of the law was not as significant as that of the New York ban, it was still present. One possibility for this less significant return to pre-ban usage levels is the District of Columbias reputatio n for strict enforcement (McCartt, 2007).4.3 North Carolina Under 18 Ban of Mobile Communication Devices In December 2006, North Carolina enacted a law that prohibited the use of any mobile communication device by drivers younger than 18 years old. Cell phone usage was observed at high schools prior to the law and five months after the law took effect. The cell phone usage prior to the law was observed at 11 percent. Cell phone usage five months after the law took effect was observedat 11.8 percent. As a control, cell phone usage in the adjacent state of South Carolina was observed over the same period of time and cell phone use there was steady at 13 percent over the observation time. Researchers conducted interviews of teen drivers in which 50 percent of the surveyed teens reported using their cell phones (post-ban) if they had driven the day prior to the survey. The conclusion of the researchers was that the cell phone law had little effect on teenage drivers use of cell phones ( Foss, 2008).5. outmatch-Based Insurance PolicesKeeping drivers safe behind the wheel is becoming an ever increasing priority as evidenced by the more a(prenominal) new and advanced(a) approaches to the problem. Solutions are being sought and in some cases found in areas of science, engineering, biomechanics, state-of-the-art gumshoe designs, etc. The following review is based on a relatively new insurance concept called distance-based insurance. Vehicle insurance is typically based on a lump sum determine method which translates to a fixed cost for each consumer regardless of how many miles a vehicle is driven.A lump-sum insurance policy will result in the same premium across a similar demographic, presumptuous that other aspects such as age, gender, location, driving records, etc. are the same. Consumers will not see any reduction in price if they reduce their yearly mileage which results in lower risk. Since the risk of collision and other policy claim related losses are de pendent on how many miles the vehicle is driven, it seems unfair to apply a lump-sum price intention to such a complex situation (Bordoff, 2008).In a publisher written by Litman (1997) he makes a profound analogy of this situation to the sale of gas. If gasoline was sold by the car-year, vehicle owners would be needful to make one lump-sum payment at the beginning of the year. This payment would accept the owner to fill the vehicle up with gasoline un exceptional times throughout the year. Prices would be based on the average consumers use of gasoline in his/her demographic. Litman suggests that this unlimited distribution of gasoline would perpetuate an increase in fuel usage resulting in more miles driven, overall vehicle costs, congestion, pollution and increased accident risk. Consumers who use less fuel than the average would find the system wholly unfair and unaffordable and would not use it. Consumers who used more than the average would be in favor of the system becaus e of the benefits it offers them.This system is ostensibly unreasonable, and anecdotally explains the limitations of our current lump-sum insurance system. In response to this problem, a new distance-based insurance pricing method has been suggested and is being implemented in some places. Distance based insurance policies are variable and are based on the vehicle-miles driven instead of the current practice of lump-sum policies. These policies are designed to better reflect the risk of consumers, since claims are generally proportional to miles driven (Bordoff, 2008). Figure 6 represents the average 2003 distribution of expenditures for ownership of an automobile in the United States. The percentage paid in insurance costs is 21 percent, a significant 13amount. The benefits of distance-based insurance policies are many, but most importantly is that they more accurately reflect the customers mileage-based risk and give many consumers an luck to proportionally reduce their insurance rates.Figure 6 Average 2003 diffusion of Expenditures for Automobile Ownership in The United States. (Litman, 1997)Similar to how distance-based insurance pricing has urge ond the way insurance premiums are being evaluated, safety-based driving systems can revolutionize how driving habits are reflected in insurance premiums. For example, cell phone use while driving increased the risk of collision. If a driver were to voluntarily embark in a program that restricted his/her cell phone use while driving, thereby reducing his/her risk of collision, that behavior could be rewarded by a lower insurance premium. This same methodology could be applied to any risky driving practice (i.e. speeding, teen driving at night, etc.) as reported to an insurance company through good technological methods.This, much like distance-based policies, would more accurately reflect the consumers safety risk and could result in lower insurance rates. Those who choose not to participate in the program wo uld have to assume the average risk and associated premiums. This programwould be a huge incentive for people to participate and subsequently drive safely.6. Technological Methods for Improving Driving Safety6.1. lively Safety Features through Vehicle-to-Vehicle and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure Comm. To help evacuate car accidents and minimize foul effects of accidents, many automotive manufacturers aim to provide active safety features such as advanced speed radar, autopilot systems, lane sack warnings, integration of video cameras, collision alerts, situational awareness systems, active headlights, and vehicle-to-vehicle communications to come upon a few. The radar-based system can be used to help avoid or mitigate the effect of front-end collisions. A number of systems focus on how to utilize wireless vehicle-to-infrastructure communications to provide early warnings to drivers about emf hazards at intersections, where 40 percent of all traffic accidents and 20 percent of cra sh-related fatalities occur.Specific technologies designed to mitigate the use of cell phones by drivers are generally groceryed toward the young driver because that is where the largest concern for safety is, as well as where the most potential improvements can be made. It is also the primary election market because often these technologies require voluntary involvement where parents are more likely to involve their children than themselves. These devices are, relatively speaking, in their infancy. Many devices on the market seem to individually employ a portion of what is needed to be a complete and effective system, but each has its limitations.6.2. GPS-based Driving monitor SystemExamples of a technologies used to monitor teens and provide a possible solution for talking while driving are the wide variety of Global Positioning System (GPS)-based monitor systems. These systems use the GNSS (Global Navigation satellite System) web to log the vehicles location and speed at regu lar intervals and allow downloading of the data for further analysis. some(prenominal) advanced observe programs provide over-speed alerts and/or send data to a central computing device or system through a wireless communication network for tracking teen drivers in real-time.It should be remarked that, in addition to the use of teen driver tracking, these kinds of GPS tracking systems have been successfully used for commercial fleet tracking and network-wide traffic monitoring. Similarly, the windshield camera produced by DriveCam Inc. can record the driving behavior and transmit digital images to a central data server for further analysis.The above-mentioned (passive monitoring) systems, however, are not seamlessly incorporate with cell phones, so none of them can actively prevent the use of cell phones even when the vehicle is in motion. They provide only an probability for the monitor to give post-violation advice and instruction to the teens, when it might be too late.6.3. Cell Phone Based Context IdentificationCurrently, mobile phone usage is no longer limited to making and receiving calls, both GPS and accelerometer sensors have been astray supported in the next generation of mobile phones. For example, both GPS and accelerometer sensors have been installed in iPhone 3G chic phones from Apple Inc., and 50 percent of Nokia mobile phones shipped in 2009 will be GPS-enabled.A number of studies aim to utilize plant sensors in the next generation of mobile phones, specifically GPS and accelerometer sensors to discover and take advantage of linguistic contextual information such as user location, time of day, as well as the type of activity the user is involved in, such as walking, driving, or standing still. This contextual information can be used to alter the phones status creating a smart phone that is safer and/or more user friendly. Chen and Kotz (2000) provided a comprehensive survey on context-aware mobile computing research. They suggest that although context-awareness is a widely researched topic, there are still areas that could be further explored. The authors specifically highlight the need to further develop the awareness, communication, and use of context-based computing as having the most potential to benefit society.The application of contextual information to cell phones is critically important because it determines what the user is doing, and thereby when to alter the phone status. SenSay is one recent application (Siewiorek et al., 2003) that integrates contextual information with cell phone use. unite a cell phone with sensory data, user information, and user history, the researchers were able to provide a context aware phone that improves its overall usability. For example, the phone is able to change ringer volume and vibration, and further provide dynamic phone alerts and call handling depending on the users activity. The real-world application of this device is limited because of peripherally needed devi ces, but the integration of this type of context catching devices within phones holds great potentials.In a GSM or 3G networks, triangulation among two or more cellular towers, signal strength fluctuations, and changes to the current serving cell phone towers can be also used to estimate the context of cell phone users (e.g. study by Anderson and Muller in 2006). The result of context identification, including the speed of moving cell phones, can be used to distinguish driving vs. walking or remaining still. This contextual information can be used to prevent risky driving behaviors, such as talking while driving and texting while driving. However, as shown in a study by Smith et al. (2004), the existing cell phone-based speed estimation results are less accurate when compared to GPS-based methods.These results are exaggerated during periods of congest traffic or stop-and-go traffic on arterial streets. This review was able to identify various devices for sale that are marketed tow ard teen drivers all with the purpose of monitoring and or reducing poor driving habits. These devices are tools which parents can use to monitor, advise, and teach their children long after the learner and graduated driving experiences have passed. Several companies currently offering some of these devices were contacted and asked if there were any studies or research that had been done showing the effectiveness of their products. The companies responded that studies have been done, but that the results were proprietary because they had been financed by insurance companies.7. Economic Analysis of Restricting Cell Phone UseAlthough there is sufficient data to prove that cell phone use while driving increases the risk of crashes, complete restriction of cell phones by drivers has been controversial in part because of the benefits consumers and society receive from these calls and because the exact number of crashes caused by cell phone use are unfamiliar. Several researchers have at tempted to quantity these values by comparing the total societal cost of crashes caused by cell phone use to the benefits society receives from the same. The results of three such studies are listed belowHahn and Tetlock (1999) A complete ban on cell phones by drivers would result in a societal loss of $23 billion annually.Redelmeier and Weinstein (1999) A complete ban on cell phones by drivers would result in a societal loss of $300,000 annually.Cohen and Graham (2003) A complete ban on cell phones by drivers would result in a net societal loss of zero.The Cohen and Graham study was a re-analysis of the Hahn and Tetlock study with updated estimates and more comprehensive analysis. Because the exact numbers of crashes that are caused by cell phone use is unknown and it is difficult to quantify the value of cell phone use in society, these variables needed to be estimated in the analyses. The variability between the three estimates shows how the results are highly dependent on the es timation of these variables. In a Study by Martin et al. (2006), researchers analyzed the impact cell phone use by drivers had on traffic flow. A car following behavior was determine by simulated driving for both the non cell phone user and the cell phone user.The researchers then used these car following behavior models and through simulation and microscopic traffic modeling, were able to identify the impact that cell phone users had on the traffic stream efficiency. The research found that with different traffic conditions and varying percentages of cell phone users, cell phone usage while driving had a negative impact on traffic flow when traffic volumes were moderate or high. Converting these delays into monetary units, the researchers were able to project the cost of the delays caused by cell phone users throughout the perfect United States highway network as significant.8. Findings and RecommendationsDistracted driving has been a public concern ever since the beginning of th e automobile. Cell phone use by drivers is widespread. Intuitively, one understands that cell phone use while driving is distracting and dangerous, and many studies have proven that instinct to be true. Experimental and behavioral studies have drawn an unambiguous conclusion that cell phone use by drivers results in a cognitive distraction leading to an increased risk of collision. Studies have also been able to quantify this risk as at least as dangerous as driving while impaired by alcohol at the legal limit of .08 mg/ml.Epidemiological examination of actual crash data compared against cell phone records provides confirmation that driving while using a cell phone increases the risk of collision. In the epidemiological studies reviewed in this paper, the increased risk of collision when using a cell phone while driving was found to be between 1.3 and 5.59 times greater than non-users. Real-world data, although scarce, has also confirmed that cell phone use while driving is the sing le largest driver distraction leading to collisions. Studies are mounting that show an obvious correlation between cell phone use while driving and increased crash risk.The association between cell phone use and increased risk of traffic crashes seems to be validated by epidemiological, behavior, experimental and real-world studies, but the actual number of crashes directly related to cell phone use is harder to determine. Because the exact number of crashes directly related to cell phone use is unknown, the likely financial savings to United States drivers for outlawing cell phone use while driving is also uncertain. Other important findings are listed as follows (1) Government at all levels has tried to legislate a solution for this problem with poor results, (2) Young drivers are especially susceptible to the danger of cell phone use while driving because they are already overrepresented in the crash statistics, (3) Technology is intervening where legislation has failed to provid e solutions to the problem of cell phone use while driving.To improve driving safety in general, and to prevent talking on cell phones while driving in particular, the following initiatives and innovations are critically needed. 1) Accurate reporting of cell phone involvement in collisions on police reports The underreporting of cell phone involvement in collisions on police reports, the best indicator of how many collisions are directly related to cell phone use, has proven to be significant. This is deplorable because many legislative efforts to stop the use of cell phones by drivers are based at least partly on this data. Legislative efforts in themselves have shown to be minimally effective to statistically ineffective in curbing the use of cell phones by drivers. Several government agencies have nonetheless continued seeking for some type of solution to this problem.2) Technological solutions for accurately identifying driving mode of cell phone users A wide variety of researc h has been devoted to mobile phone-based context identification by GPS, triangulation, or signal strength. Despite considerable research efforts, the technology remains insufficient to properly distinguish the exact mode of cell phone uses such as driving, walking, or remaining still. Even with all the functional location and movement data, it is still extremely difficult to distinguish if a cell phone user is driving a car, seating as a passenger, or riding a bus or train. away context identification could lead to problematic disabling of the communication capability when a cell phone user is not driving a car. Additional research is still needed in the area of unlifelike intelligence to improve the context estimation accuracy.3) Integrated driving monitoring systemThere are many products that have been designed to administer the problem of cell phone use by young drivers. Some existing context based technologies are designed to passively monitor an individuals driving by reco rding their movements and making them available for download at another time. Some advanced monitoring technologies allow for real-time alerts to be sent to a central computer or by text message through wireless communications. These technologies can give real-time information to parents about safety concerns, but fail to provide any way of actively preventing the dangers from happening. The need for a context based solution that also allows for active prevention of cell phone use while driving is apparent.4) Safety-based insurance policiesDistance-based insurance policies have revolutionized the way automobile insurance is evaluated. Distance-based policies are more reflective of the individual mile-based risk and result in more fitting premiums. As distance-based insurance policies have changed how we think about insurance, so can safety-based insurance policies. If a driving safety profile could be determined for an individual consumer, insurance rates could be tailored to better reflect the individuals collision risk. This method could help further reflect a drivers risk and in many cases lower the insurance premiums or be an incentive for aggressive or inexperienced drivers to drive safely. 5) Cost-effective car safety features Automotive manufacturers are engaged in the design of safety features on vehicles, which are think to enhance the drivers ability to avoid collisions.Some of the state-of-the-art safety features that are being explored by the automobile manufacturers are forward-looking speed radar, autopilot systems, lane departure warnings, integration of video cameras, collision alerts, situational awareness systems, active headlights, and vehicle-to-vehicle communications. Automotive manufacturers have the objective of creating a smart car through the integration of technology. The smart call will be designed to enhance the drivers ability to avoid collisions, but the driver will still maintain control. These devices, although potentially very effective in reducing vehicle collisions, fail to address the problem of cell phone use by drivers.Automotive attempts at collision scheme systems are also relatively expensive and in some cases are limited by participation and communication between vehicles.The complete restriction of cell phone use by drivers seems to be unlikely because of the lack of concrete evidence showing how many crashes are caused by cell phone use, and what the cost of such a ban would be. Short of a complete restriction, a technology that would self-impose restrictions or that could be tailored to the most dangerous demographic of young drivers becomes most probable. A technological solution that is practical, effective, context-based, cost-effective, and focused on the drivers actions is critically needed.ReferencesAllstate Foundation. (February 2007). Parents and teen driving safety quantitative study. 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